Reconstructing Electrical Safety Barriers in Indonesian Manufacturing SMEs Using Systems-Theoretic Process Analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65419/albahit.v5i3.160Keywords:
: electrical safety, STAMP, STPA, manufacturing SMEs, occupational safety and health, Indonesia, residual-current protection, safety barriers, human and organizational performanceAbstract
The International Labour Organization estimates that work-related diseases and injuries account for approximately 2.93 million deaths and 395 million non-fatal work injuries annually These figures do not isolate electrical events in Indonesia, but they underline the importance of prevention-oriented occupational safety and health (OSH) systems, particularly in small enterprises where specialist expertise, formal supervision, documentation, and maintenance resources may be limited. Electricity is indispensable to manufacturing, yet workers and enterprises may be exposed to electric shock, burns, arc-related injury, fire, equipment damage, and production interruption when an installation’s condition or integrity is inadequate, or when protection, maintenance, or work control is weak. Indonesian public authorities have emphasized electrical-fire prevention, residual-current protection, and compliance with applicable workplace requirements .
This paper reports a secondary-data, theory-informed STPA case reconstruction. The numerical values are reported from the source thesis rather than independently re-estimated in the present study. The reconstruction does not test the effectiveness of the proposed constraints, estimate accident probabilities, or establish event-level causal relationships. Its purpose is to organize available barrier evidence into a transparent control structure and to identify propositions and field-validation requirements. The reconstruction specified six hazards, ten high-level safety constraints, twelve unsafe control actions, and six causal-scenario families. These outputs are analytical constructs proposed for field validation; they are not empirically verified causal findings.
References
[1] International Labour Organization. (2023, November 26). *Nearly 3 million people die of work-related accidents and diseases*. https://www.ilo.org/resource/news/nearly-3-million-people-die-work-related-accidents-and-diseases
[2] Dinas Pemadam Kebakaran dan Penyelamatan Kota Yogyakarta. (2026). *Trend Data Kejadian Kebakaran Tahun 2025*. Official municipal fire-service report.
[3] Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of the Republic of Indonesia, Directorate General of Electricity. (2026, July 9). *Cegah Kecelakaan Akibat Listrik, Kementerian ESDM Perkuat Penerapan GPAS*. https://www.esdm.go.id/en/media-center/news-archives/cegah-kecelakaan-akibat-listrik-kementerian-esdm-perkuat-penerapan-gpas
[4] Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of the Republic of Indonesia. (2024, October 5). Cegah Kebakaran Akibat Listrik, Dirjen Gatrik Sarankan Pakai RCBO.
[5] Ministry of Manpower of the Republic of Indonesia. (2015). *Peraturan Menteri Ketenagakerjaan Nomor 12 Tahun 2015 tentang Keselamatan dan Kesehatan Kerja Listrik di Tempat Kerja*. Official regulation.
[6] Patriarca, R., Chatzimichailidou, M. M., Karanikas, N., & Di Gravio, G. (2022). The past and present of System-Theoretic Accident Model And Processes (STAMP) and its associated techniques: A scoping review. *Safety Science, 146*, 105566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105566
[7] Leveson, N. G. (2011). Engineering a safer world: Systems thinking applied to safety. MIT Press.
[8] Xu, X., Li, D., Huang, G., Wang, Z., Zhu, L., & Ni, X. (2024). Constructing safety management systems in modern industry and trade enterprises: A STAMP-based approach. Sustainability, 16 (24), 11238. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162411238.
[9] Ebrahimi, H., Zarei, E., Ansari, M., et al. (2024). A system theory based accident analysis model: STAMP-fuzzy DEMATEL. *Safety Science, 173*, 106445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2024.106445
[10] Shin, S.-M., Lee, S. H., Shin, S. K., Jang, I., & Park, J. (2021). STPA-based hazard and importance analysis on NPP safety I&C systems focusing on human–system interactions. *Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 213*, 107698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2021.107698
[11] Le Coze, J.-C. (2022). The “new view” of human error: Origins, ambiguities, successes and critiques. Safety Science, 154, 105853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2022.105853.
[12] European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. (2025). The concept of human error: Is it useful for the design of safe systems? OSHwiki. https://oshwiki.osha.europa.eu/en/safety-science-monitor/concept-human-error-it-useful-design-safe-systems
[13] Wachter, J. K., & Yorio, P. L. (2014). A system of safety management practices and worker engagement for reducing and preventing accidents: An empirical and theoretical investigation. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 68, 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2013.07.029.
[14] Government of Klaten Regency, Protocol and Communications Office. (2026, August 10). Bupati Klaten Sampaikan Belasungkawa kepada Keluarga Korban Tersengat Listrik di Mojayan.
[15] Assabri, A. M. A. A. (2017). *Pengembangan Model Manajemen K3 Listrik pada UKM untuk Meminimalkan Kecelakaan Kerja* [Master’s thesis, Universitas Islam Indonesia]. UII Repository.
[16] Clovis, D. G. J., & Park, J. Y. (2019). System theory based hazard analysis for construction site safety: A case study from Cameroon. *Safety Science, 118*, 783–794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.06.007
[17] Sun, L., Li, Y.-F., et al. (2022). Comparison of the HAZOP, FMEA, FRAM, and STPA methods for the hazard analysis of automatic emergency brake systems. ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems, Part B: Mechanical Engineering, 8 (3), 031104. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4051940.
[18] International Electrotechnical Commission. (2017). IEC 60364-4-41:2005/AMD1:2017: Low-voltage electrical installations—Protection against electric shock.
[19] International Electrotechnical Commission. (2024). IEC 61009-1:2024: Residual current operated circuit-breakers with integral overcurrent protection for household and similar uses.
[20] National Fire Protection Association. (2024). NFPA 70E: Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace.
[21] International Electrotechnical Commission. (2024). IEC 61008-1:2024: Residual current operated circuit-breakers without integral overcurrent protection for household and similar uses.
[22] Kongtip, P., Yoosook, W., & Chantanakul, S. (2008). Occupational health and safety management in small and medium-sized enterprises: An overview of the situation in Thailand. *Safety Science, 46*(8), 1359–1371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2007.09.001
[23] International Electrotechnical Commission. (2009, consolidated with Amendment 1:2021). *IEC 60038:2009+AMD1:2021: IEC standard voltages*.
[24] Hajibabaei, A. (2024). A Systems-Theoretic Approach to Safety Management System Assessment: A Case Study Applying STPA-Based Method in a Data Center Company [Master’s degree project, KTH Royal Institute of Technology]. DiVA portal. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1921044/FULLTEXT01.pdf.
[25] Nakhal, A. A. J., Patriarca, R., De Carlo, F., & Leoni, L. (2023). A System-Theoretic Fuzzy Analysis (STheFA) for systemic safety assessment. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 177, 1181–1196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2023.07.014.
[26] Dong, C., Zhang, Y., Wang, Z., Liu, J., & Zhang, J. (2024). The hybrid systems method integrating STAMP and HFACS for the causal analysis of road traffic accidents. Ergonomics, 67, 971–994. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2023.2270783.
[27] Sun, H., Wang, H., Yang, M., & Reniers, G. (2024). Dynamic risk assessment of chemical process systems using the System-Theoretic Accident Model and Process approach (STAMP) in combination with a cascading failure propagation model. Safety Science, 171, 106375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106375.
[28] Jolliffe, I. T., & Cadima, J. (2016). Principal component analysis: A review and recent developments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 374(2065), 20150202. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2015.0202
